Infrastructure Issues in Computer-mediated Communication
***** MAULE **************** EJC/REC Vol. 3, No. 2, 1993 ***
INFRASTRUCTURE ISSUES IN COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION
R. William Maule
University of San Francisco
Abstract. This paper reviews structural and
organizational issues impacting computer-mediated
environments including some processes and
technologies to enhance information and
communication services. Current and projected
network services are addressed, including
offerings by public, private, and value-added
carriers for applications in business, industry,
government and education. The narrative develops
the theme that wide-area, inter-organizational
communications may best be accommodated through
multi-network solutions.
Introduction
A fully networked society, with capacities for
one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many communications,
provides a fertile incubator for the development of
next-generation information services and for the development
of next-generation information workers. Many facets of the
infrastructure are already in place, however, the parts
remain scattered across networks, operating systems, and
computing platforms.
Computer communications can be used to simultaneously
join multiple users across hundreds of networks. Recent
advances in networking technologies enable diverse computer,
information, and telecommunication systems to co-exist and
integrate on the networks. While there has been a dramatic
increase in the use of wide-area networking technologies,
these systems have yet to achieve a full integration into
organizations and society.
If fully implemented, network applications might
dramatically impact intra- and inter- organizational
communications to improve company operating procedures,
create strategic advantages, or forge new business
alliances. Internet resources have recently come within
reach of most organizations and computer users. Recent
advances in the technologies of regional, long distance, and
value-added telecommunications carriers have similarly
created new opportunities to enhance communications.
Organizations and individuals may connect to the
infrastructure through public, private, or value-added
network providers.
Computer-Mediated Communication
Business, industry, government, and education can all
claim adoption of sophisticated information technologies
able to adequately serve internal operations. Effective
organizational communications increasingly involves the
integration of resources distributed across organizations,
and networks, with the objective that users be able to share
all information within a total information environment.
External communications for trade, research, and
intellectual pursuits are becoming increasingly important.
However, effective applications of wide-area,
inter-organizational communications are still relatively
rare.
Electronic Environments
The goal of telecommunication planners is to create a
global digital highway, open to all telecommunications
users, with universal access into totally open networks
(Pelton, 1990). Users will be able to economically access
voice, data and images, in any combination, anywhere, and at
any time (Mayo, 1992). Such capabilities exist today.
However, effective use of the resources has too often become
dependent on information policies and the culture of the
organization. Adoption has entailed a rather difficult
process of unscrambling old procedures and attitudes, moving
to new ways of performing intellectual tasks and of thinking
about communications, and then installing the new processes
into the daily agenda of individuals and groups (Mulgan,
1991; Cash, McFarlan & McKenney, 1992).
For example, while 83% of U.S. Government workers
would prefer to work via computer at home or at a near-home
remote office, only 14% have the opportunity (Temin, 1992).
Organizations have yet to decide whether office technology
has produced measurable increases in productivity, or even
whether traditional productivity measures adequately assess
quality and quantity of work (Olsen, 1992). Strategists
implementing information projects must consider not only
systems development needs, and the required skills of
employees, but also the degree to which information services
are supported by the organization (Broadbent, Lloyd,
Hansell, & Dampney, 1992).
Traditionally, implementation problems have been caused
by differing interface standards and modes of human-computer
discourse (Straub & Wetherbe, 1989; Ridgeway, 1989).
Fortunately, graphical user-interfaces have somewhat
alleviated these concerns by standardizing screen displays
across multiple platforms, networks, and operating systems
(Molich & Nielsen, 1990). In addition, new network
applications allow intelligence to be programmed into the
user-interfaces to enable systems to maintain and apply
information about the user to further ease communications
(Jacob, 1986; Higgins, 1989; Sugioka, 1992).
Online Communities
Authors have been referring to "online communities"
that will be instrumental in the realization of an advanced
learning society (Lauzon & Moore, 1989). Within these
communities, users will access remote computer systems and
resources which are fluid, evolving, and continuously
expanding (Hayes, 1989; Hiltz, 1990). The resources may be
used to improve communications, stay abreast of current
developments, maintain contact with business partners or
external specialists, and to establish future business
opportunities.
Difficulties arise because inter-organizational
communications services are often not immediately recognized
as critical for business functions. Future 'opportunities'
are sometimes difficult to justify, thereby hindering
wide-spread adoption. Thus, while technology may progress
rapidly, the human processes to successfully implement and
employ that technology may not (Mulgan, 1991).
Implementation problems are compounded because of the
somewhat unusual nature of 'networking.' Namely, with
network technologies, information flows throughout
organizations, and among different organizations, freely and
without regard to corporate interests. Hopper (1991) notes
that the ultimate impact of the new technologies is to give
end-users greater power to shape their computing systems and
to manage their information needs. This is very different
from traditional 'top-down' communication patterns and can
cause concern for top management. Yet, it is this
empowerment of the end-user, and their interaction with
fluid and dynamic resources, that will drive future
organizational innovation (Scully, 1989).
As users acclimate to network-based communications and
information access, they also become increasingly aware of
data organization and retrieval issues, and are thereby
introduced to current practices in database design,
development, and maintenance (Maule, 1991, 1992). Thus,
computer-mediated communications may evolve the culture of
the organization as the workforce becomes more adept at
capitalizing on institutional information investments to
increase economic productivity (Davis & Davidson, 1991).
Duning (1990) and Moore (1990) refer to "market driven"
communications in which systems are not driven by designers
and providers but by user demand.
Human-Network Issues
The primary modes of computer-mediated communication
have been classified as either immediate (teleconferencing),
delayed (correspondence), or simulated (computer-tutorial)
(Garrison, 1987). In addition, new 'groupware' applications
are a natural outgrowth of computer communications and
enable multiple users to simultaneously interact on the same
computer project at the same time (Opper & Weiss, 1992).
Groupware applications can improve inter-organizational
communications, be used for in-service training, and can
improve overall productivity.
Employees will need training in the use of the
networks. Fortunately, online systems are increasingly
adept at supporting in-service training and education.
National mailing list services can support network training
and alleviate a need for internal funding. Online
information may also be customized to satisfy the needs of
participants. And, throughout the development,
implementation, and training process, there is little need
for administrative costs as users at desktop workstations
manage their personal communications, resource sharing, and
business transactions.
Network communications are pervasive, reaching into the
daily activities of users wherever they work, live, or
attend class. Users may access the network at a variety of
times, from a variety of places, and participate for a
variety of reasons. As this convenience is realized,
electronic technologies will increasingly influence program-
planning and development strategies as representatives of
the target population become more deeply involved in
information development and presentation (Maule, 1992).
In addition, computer communications are dynamic,
enabling current knowledge to be integrated into
organizational communications. As employees share new
knowledge and information, they garner new perspectives and
thereby drive innovation (Riel & Levin, 1990; Opper & Weiss,
1992). Throughout this process, the medium can itself be
used to coordinate the creative contributions of the
individuals (Scully, 1989).
Infrastructure Development
The Internet is excellent for wide-area data transfer
and automated online services, but poor for real-time
multimedia communications. Private common-carrier networks
provide viable multimedia solutions, but offer little, if
any, public information. Value-added networks offer some
solutions for both Internet and multimedia communications,
and some provide online resources. An effective
infrastructure may require a mix of networking technologies
and services (Heldman, 1992).
In areas of the country with an abundance of high
technology companies, such as California's Silicon Valley,
many employees have Internet access at the desktop.
However, they are not active users. The University of San
Francisco, College of Professional Studies, is actively
involved in educational programs for mid-career information
systems professionals in Silicon Valley. The following
network overviews have proven helpful when discussing the
roles of infrastructure service providers.
Public Solutions
Networking has become a national priority.
Compatibility and interoperability standards are established
under the Government Open Systems Interconnection Profile
(U.S., 1988). The National High Performance Computing
Technology Act will evolve the Internet into the National
Research and Education Network (NREN) (U.S., 1991). NREN
will extend network technology into homes and organizations,
establish comprehensive online information services, and
create opportunities for partnerships among government,
education, and business (Roberts, 1990; Menke, 1991;
Johnson, 1992). Organizations may connect to the National
Science Foundation backbone through one of the regional
public networks. Participation often depends on the needs
of the organizations, the aggressiveness of the local sales
force, and company motivations.
The Silicon Valley area has several public and private
Internet providers, and many of the high technology
companies themselves make networking products. The BARRNet
regional Internet network, in addition to connecting the
universities, has active participation by over 70 prominent
Silicon Valley high technology companies. However, while
Internet communications with employees within these
companies is possible, and even somewhat common in certain
situations, the Internet is not being used to its fullest
potential. Individually, interest among employees is very
high, especially once they have seen some of the
capabilities of the network.
Internet information services are a valuable resource
and solve many of the training and acclimation problems
inherent in learning the Internet. Fortunately, such
training is available, free-of-charge, through mailing list
services, and as self-contained instructional modules for
downloading from public domain facilities. Useful training
media, such as BBN's 'Internet Tour,' and Merit's
'Navigating the Internet,' have proven quite popular with
information systems professionals. Downloading these
resources from anonymous ftp sites, using a graphical
retrieval and translation utility (such as 'Fetch') is also
a useful experience.
'Telnet' exercises in which users login to remote
computer systems and evaluate national and international
library, public information, and government computing
resources serve to teach students about network database
structures. The Hytelnet library navigation program is a
useful telnet demonstration utility. Subscriptions to
mailing list services, such as NETTRAIN (listserv@ubvm.cc.
buffalo.edu), IPCT (Interpersonal Computing and Technology)
(listserv@guvm.bitnet), and Comserve (Comserve@vm.its.
rpi.edu), can help organizational innovators learn more
about the Internet.
For more advanced users, demonstrations of the new
network access, retrieval, and processing utilities impress
even the most seasoned information systems professional.
For example, a Wide-Area Information Server (WAIS) search
can illustrate the power of wide-area network database
systems by retrieving information from distributed databases
using a natural language query. Internet 'Gopher' software
can be used to demonstrate a technique to search and display
files structures from remote sites. A 'World-Wide Web'
hypertext search can aid research in network-based,
human-machine interaction.
Private Solutions
In the private sector, new telecommunications switching
technologies are melding previously incompatible systems and
connecting diverse networks and computing platforms. This
is timely since multimedia communications are spurring a
demand for faster, more efficient, and more compatible
networking. A trend is clearly underway as modem users
require more capacity and evolve into online X.25 packet
networks. X.25 users are demanding multimedia and evolving
into higher capacity services such as Frame Relay, Switched
Multimegabit Data Service, and ATM (Asynchronous Transfer
Mode) (Pentland, 1992).
Multimedia communications are increasingly driven by
desktop conference systems able to integrate voice, image,
and video into computer-mediated messages. Such multimedia
communications can be built into the physical apparatus and
wiring in systems such as the Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) (McQuillan, 1992). Or, they can be
software-based and achieve multimedia interactivity through
desktop systems developed by Northern Telecom, AT&T, IBM,
and professional multimedia publishers (Bajarin, 1992).
Multimedia has become a major force advancing the technology
of organizational communications.
Another interesting opportunity results from the
systems upgrades of the regional and long distance carriers
to digital switching and SS7. These technologies enable
users to program network functions on both a regional and
national level. And, as the networks become increasingly
'intelligent,' programmable network applications will enable
users to define personalized, intuitive, multimedia services
customized to individual needs (Dunning, 1992; Sekimoto,
1992; Smyth, 1992).
Value-Added Solutions
Organizations may also connect to the Internet through
several value-added network providers. Some of these
services actually improve on some of the basic Internet
communication capabilities. In conventional Internet
switching, the TCP/IP data grams are encapsulated in X.25 or
frame relay networks. The value-added providers switch
TCP/IP in native format, using routers as switches, thereby
eliminating switching delays (Collet, 1993). These
providers include Advanced Networks and Services, UUnet,
Performance Systems International, CERFnet, and Sprint.
A liberalization and commercialization of the Internet,
and public demand, have expanded opportunities for Internet
access for individual users. Anyone with a computer and
modem can now access full Internet services. Following is a
list of the basic Internet functions provided by private
online services and available for individual use:
SERVICE COST MAIL TELNET FTP NETNEWS
AOL $8 yes no no yes
CompuServe $8 yes no no yes
Infoserv $14 yes no yes yes
MCI $5 yes no no no
Netcom $18 yes yes yes yes
Prodigy $15 yes no no no
Well $15 yes yes yes yes
Delphi $13 yes yes yes no
All of the services offer mail boxes and Internet mail.
Most are accessible through a local telephone call. In
addition to the listed monthly subscription, hourly charges
can vary depending on the service. Telnet and ftp are
sometimes a minor additional charge. Of course, with the
basic mail service, users can access the Internet listservs
to find network training media. Usenet Netnews is also
available through many of the suppliers. Most of these
services provide bulletin boards and online databases so a
subscription includes access to those services. Internet
operations are a new but rapidly growing part of their
services, and many of their databases contain Internet
information.
Discussion and Conclusion
The evolution to network-based information delivery
seems a certainty. The success of the systems and programs
will be dependent on the degree to which the processes are
integrated into the information infrastructure of the
organization and into the daily agenda of participants.
Wide-area network services may involve a mix of
networking technologies and services. Too often, the
academic community downplays the potential of private
networks, and industry underestimates the potential of the
Internet. Presently, organizations have needs for
simultaneous information, conferencing, and multimedia
communications which can only be satisfied through hybrid
public-private wide-area network solutions.
Computer conferences, online databases, and bulletin
board services afford users the opportunity to complete
network training at their own pace and personal convenience.
The media may be online text, or independent multimedia or
hypermedia instructional modules. Group software, with
members operating locally or at a distance, is an exciting
area for exploitation and a natural outgrowth of online
conference systems. Some of the more interesting aspects of
the new network technologies derive from their potential to
enable users to shape their personal information
environments.
Future research may help to determine the proper mix of
the various network and communication technologies, the
impact of network-based communications on traditional
information structures, and design processes for the
distribution of information to various home, work, and
social environments.
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