***** LOPERFIDO ************ EJC/REC Vol. 3, No. 2, 1993 ***

ELECTRONIC MAIL AS A MEDIA CHOICE FOR MANAGERS


Allison M. Loperfido
Cornell University


        Abstract.  Organization theory has viewed an
     organization as a whole structure comprised of
     interacting parts.  Work-related tasks and the
     employees who perform them do not exist in
     isolation of others in an organization.  However,
     task specialization creates information sources
     not readily accessible to those outside a
     particular group, while differentiation
     simultaneously increases the need for
     communication among those specialized groups and
     their members.  Communication channels or media
     that are readily accessible and universal
     throughout an organization may keep necessary
     information flowing to those who depend on it.  A
     medium whose attributes give it potential to
     impact the way in which organization members
     communicate job-related, interdependent
     information is electronic (or computer mediated)
     mail.  To complete the requirements for the Master
     of Professional Studies Degree in Communication, I
     proposed to study how the introduction of a
     universally accessible electronic mail system
     affects the way employees in an organization
     communicate.  In particular, electronic mail
     presents itself as a option which could change the
     way managers communicate with their subordinates.
     This paper focuses on electronic mail as a media
     choice for managers for their organizational
     communication needs, examines factors which enter
     into a decision to use or not use electronic mail,
     and introduces a study currently underway to
     determine the effects of electronic mail on the
     amount of task-related information exchanged in an
     organization.

     In an organization, communication occurs between
individuals who have a clearly established relationship, who
are in some way connected.  Wigand (1988) expands this idea:
"Conceptually, the existence of a relationship between two
individuals is constituted by the recognition of some
constraint which restricts the behavior of one or both of
the individuals.  Such a constraint suggests one other
characteristic of a relationship, namely, some
interdependence between the individuals" (p. 322).  Such a
relationship exists in organizations between managers and
their subordinates and co-workers, and between other
co-workers whose tasks and information are interdependent.

          Information Exchanges in Organizations

     In manager-to-subordinate communication, the purposes
of such communication are believed to include: giving
specific instructions about a job-related task; providing
information about organization policies and procedures;
providing evaluations of performance; and explaining how the
subordinate's job-related tasks fit into the organization's
operation.  This communication is highly directive in nature
and may often times include equivocal, ambiguous
information.  Between co-workers, communication concerning
job-related tasks focuses on giving and receiving
information necessary to complete assignments and fulfill
individual job responsibilities.  It may also involve
traditional "grapevine," socio-emotional and otherwise
non-job-related information.

     Although there are many factors that influence the
openness and ease of an organization's communication,
including organization goals and members' personalities,
research indicates communication channels or media that are
readily accessible and universal throughout an organization
may keep necessary information flowing to those who depend
on it.

Organizational Communication through Electronic Mail

     Steinfield (1992) explains that organization design
strategies have been developed that allow for increased
vertical and horizontal communication flows so related
individuals can best deal with complex and interdependent,
task-related questions.  A medium whose attributes give it
potential to positively impact the way in which organization
members communicate job-related, interdependent information
is electronic (or computer mediated) mail.

     Electronic mail, a type of interpersonal message
service, is designed to transmit written messages from one
point to another electronically, rather than by physical or
personal delivery.  Dowall and Salkin (1986) define
electronic mail as: "the use of personal computers,
communicating text-editing machines, or specially designed
terminals with the appropriate software to send and receive
written messages" (p. 38).  For those organizations that
have already moved into the age of office automation--with
computer workstations available at every desk--electronic
mail is a doable and affordable alternative to traditional
mail delivery systems and other channels in its ability to
improve organizational communication functions (Trudell,
Bruman & Oliver, 1984).

Potential Benefits of Electronic Mail Use in Organizations

     Supporters of electronic mail (Trudell et al., 1984)
argue it can make the work environment more productive and
help people more effectively handle information when it
comes to them.  It can also increase the number of
communication relationships within an organization and
create a new environment for sharing and disseminating
job-related information.  According to Connell and Galbraith
(1980): "Electronic mail makes most sense for the
organization that needs rapid communication among
departments in different sites" (p. 3).

     Specifically, electronic mail allows for speedy
interactions; dissemination of information to one or more
individuals immediately and at any time of day or during any
day of the week; cost effective distribution of information;
permanent records of all communications, regardless of the
origin (Shapiro & Anderson, 1985).  Kleinschrod (1986),
similar to Trudell et al. (1984), asserts that what results
is a communication process that improves the flow of and
access to information within an organization.  As a result,
more and more organizations are introducing electronic mail
to their employees as a means to improve office productivity
and office communication (Connell & Galbraith, 1980).

     Contractor and Eisenberg (1990) indicate that for
subordinates, access to managers via electronic mail prompts
them to dramatically increase their communication with them.
Dallinger and Hample (1988) note that accessibility to
managers has proven to be an important element of an
organization's climate, which in turn affects communication
satisfaction.  In addition, the researchers note that pairs
of individuals who have access to electronic mail interact
more frequently with each other than those who only
communicate in person, face-to-face.  Similarly, Huber
(1990) found that individuals in an organization use
electronic mail in ways that increase their effectiveness in
fulfilling organizational goals.  Further, he states: "use
of advanced information technologies [electronic mail] leads
to more available and more quickly retrieved information,
including ... internal information ..."  (p. 265).  The
presence of universally accessible electronic mail in an
organization helps create a less centralized, less
structured system of communication.

     Research suggests electronic mail has the ability to
increase the amount of job-related information exchanged
between managers and their subordinates and co-workers.
According to Trevino, Daft, and Lengel (1990), managers are
more likely to communicate unambiguous information to
subordinates via electronic mail, while communicating
ambiguous, equivocal messages through face-to-face
interactions.  However, according to Fulk, Schmitz, and
Steinfield (1990), electronic mail has been used between
managers and subordinates to communicate highly
interpersonally involved interactions such as conflict
resolution and negotiation.

     Today, there are a number of communication options for
managers to consider, with electronic mail among them.  But
there are others, and there is now a growing body of
research literature that discusses them and examines their
impact on organizational communication.  Henceforth this
discussion will focus on electronic mail as a media choice
for managers for their organizational communication needs,
and it will also look at factors which enter into a decision
to use or not use electronic mail.

            Electronic Mail as a Medium Choice
                     in Organizations

     Trevino, Daft, and Lengel (1990) suggest the easier it
becomes to communicate with individuals at diverse and
distant locations, the more complex the process becomes.
The reason for this deduction is in part because in
organizations, choosing a medium for internal and external
communication is not the simple, intuitive process it
appears to be.  Choosing the appropriate medium can make the
difference between effective and ineffective communication.
In some instances, a single medium is fine for communicating
certain messages.  However, rarely is a single medium
appropriate for all communication.  Media choice mistakes
can impede successful communication.

     For example, Trevino et al.  (1990) cite the Challenger
space shuttle disaster as the result of a media choice
mistake, referring specifically to the use of
teleconferencing to make the decision to launch the
Challenger in January 1986.  They note the engineers had
strong feelings against launching the Challenger.  "It is
possible that the teleconference medium was incapable of
communicating the strength of the engineers' emotions and
gut feelings to the managers who had to make the decision"
(Trevino et al., 1990, p. 72).

Choosing a Communication Medium

     A question that arises, then, is what variables do and
should influence a manager's decision about which medium to
use in organizational communication?  Researchers (Trevino
et al., 1990; Steinfield, 1985; Steinfield, 1992) suggest
the following three: (1) the equivocality [ambiguousness] of
a message to be sent, (2) the context of the messaging
situation, and (3) the potential symbolic cues that could be
conveyed by the medium itself above and beyond the literal
message the manager may have had in mind.  Steinfield (1992)
in particular asserts that the key contingency for
determining which medium is appropriate is dependent upon
the amount of equivocality in the message and the situation
itself.

     Equivocality--the existence of many and conflicting
interpretations about an organizational situation--may be
high when a message or situation is ambiguous to one or more
parties involved.  According to Daft and Lengel (1986), an
information stimulus may have several interpretations.  They
further note that equivocality leads to the exchange of
existing views among managers and related individuals to
define the problems and resolve conflict through the
development of shared meaning, meaning that can direct
future organizational activities.  Equivocality and
ambiguity develop in organizational settings because people
"come to a problem with different experience, cognitive
elements, goals, values, and priorities...  A common
perspective does not exist" (Daft & Lengel, 1986, p. 564).

     With unequivocal or unambiguous messages, a consensus
about meaning has been reached by the parties involved.
Such information whose meaning is clear can be transmitted
through most media without the threat of misunderstandings
or confusion.  Equivocality and its subsequent relation to
media richness is emphasized here, particularly when
addressing electronic mail as an organizational
communication media choice for managers.

Determining Electronic Mail's Richness

     Communication media such as electronic mail have
varying capabilities for resolving ambiguity and have been
characterized as "rich" or "lean" based on their capacity to
enhance shared meaning among the participants in the
communication situation.  Daft and Lengel (1986) note that
communication that requires a long time to enable
understanding or that cannot overcome different perspectives
is high in ambiguity and requires a rich medium.  They
explain that rich media have the highest capacity to
facilitate shared meaning, while lean media have the lowest
capacity.

     Daft and Lengel (1986) ranked various media in terms of
their richness.  The media classifications are, in
decreasing richness: (1) face-to-face, (2) telephone, (3)
personal documents such as letters or memos, (4) impersonal
written documents, (5) numeric documents.  However, when
they expanded this hierarchy in 1990, electronic mail was
listed third, between the telephone and letters.  They also
listed four criteria that determine media richness: (1) the
availability of instant feedback, which allows for quickly
reaching a shared understanding, (2) the capacity of the
medium to send multiple cues such as body language and tone
of voice, (3) the use of real language rather than numbers,
as is the case of quantitative office reports or
spreadsheets, and (4) a focus on the people involved.
Similarly, Alexander, Penley, and Jernigan (1991) found that
the four factors that determine channel or media richness
include the ability of the channel to provide feedback,
incorporate multiple cues, use natural language, and convey
feelings and emotions.

     To this extent, researchers (Trevino et al., 1990;
Steinfield, 1992; Daft & Lengel, 1986) have suggested that
electronic mail is varied in terms of its media richness.
It has already been noted that electronic mail systems can
provide rapid feedback, although such message exchanges may
become a series of punctuated statements rather than an
interactive discussion.  However, there are some electronic
mail systems that allow individuals to interact by sending
to and receiving from each other messages at the same time,
or in "real-time," but those messages cannot carry voice
inflection or other non-verbal cues.  However, emphasis cues
and "flaming" in electronic mail may convey strong-felt
emotions.

     "Immediate feedback from body language, interruptions
[from the listener], or other cues we have developed as a
society to aid the intercommunication process is lacking in
this media [electronic mail]" (Shapiro & Anderson, 1985, p.
26).  The researchers note that the most important
phenomenon to result from electronic mail use is the
frequency with which a recipient reacts negatively or
inappropriately when reading electronic mail
messages--whether new messages or feedback--that might have
been misinterpreted.

     Considered another way, electronic mail contributes to
a punctuation of responses (DeVito, 1992).  Generally,
communication between two individuals is a continuous
interaction, not a series of punctuated communication
events.  In electronic mail, however, this is not the case.
Messages are sent and received individually.  This is not a
continuous interaction and, again, feedback through
nonverbal cues is absent.  The process may become one
through which individuals cannot productively manage
ambiguity.

     While it may appear that electronic mail is not
preferred for interpersonally involved communications, it is
important to note that face-to-face interactions are not
always viewed as the "cure-alls" to communication
challenges.  Face-to-face interactions may also not be the
best to facilitate conflict resolution.  For example, in
manager/subordinate communication, defensive behavior can
result in a face-to-face situation if one or both
individuals involved perceive the other's responses or
behavior to be rehearsed.  "Arousing defensiveness
interferes with communication and thus makes it
difficult...for anyone to convey ideas clearly and to move
effectively toward the solution of...problems" (Gibb, 1961,
p. 145).

     Yet, advanced information technologies such as
electronic mail are making it possible for individuals
within an organization, whether at the same location or at
geographically diverse locations, to communicate amongst
themselves without ever seeing and/or speaking with each
other.  But support for use of the medium for
intra-organizational communication is not consistent.
"People are used to reading body language, voice intonation,
and numerous other cues when interpreting messages delivered
in conversation ...  Those cues are missing in electronic
mail, and what was meant as a casual comment... is
misinterpreted" (Shapiro & Anderson, 1985, p. 21).  Not
surprisingly, then, according to a 1991 study by National
Public Relations in collaboration with Gallup Canada,
forty-two percent of employees surveyed believe direct
contact with their managers is the most effective way to
communicate, with only two percent favoring electronic mail
(Jackson, 1991).

Considering Message Content and Context

     Alexander, Penley, and Jernigan (1991), based on their
study of managers in Arizona banks, believe managers match
the information demands of a message (its equivocality) to
the capabilities of the media used (its richness), and that
some managers are more attuned to the link between the
demands of their environment and the communication
potentials of various media.  This may perhaps explain why
some researchers found that managers considered message
content when deciding upon which channel to use.

     In their 1987 study, Trevino, Daft, and Lengel
interviewed 65 managers at diverse levels in 11 different
organizations and asked them to discuss why a specific
medium was chosen for a specific communication incident.
The researchers found that a leaner medium such as
electronic mail was "preferred" for unambiguous, routine
communications where little or no feedback was required.
This supports the researchers' later assertion that
electronic mail can be used effectively for simple symbol
transmission when pre-established meaning already exists.

     When content is considered, then, managers are likely
to use electronic mail for those messages which are routine
and for which there is a common interpretation.  They will
use electronic mail when transmitting messages for which
multiple cues could over-complicate the communication and/or
distract the receiver.  For example, a manager who
personally reminds an employee of a regularly scheduled
staff meeting when an electronic mail reminder would be fine
may inadvertently be conveying an air of importance about
that employee's attendance at the meeting.  This is also an
example of how the medium itself becomes the message, or a
potential symbol.

     However, it is worth mentioning that electronic mail
has been used for interpersonally involved messages.
Steinfield (1985) found electronic mail was used for a
variety of socio-emotional purposes in addition to more
standard task-related applications.  However, in this same
study he found that electronic mail was not perceived to be
an appropriate medium for discussing confidential or private
communications.  Private information was noted to include
performance evaluations and information about job and
promotion opportunities.  People studied typically selected
electronic mail as the medium by which to broadcast requests
for information, get a message directly through to someone
whose calls are normally screened, and to send a message in
place of a phone call.

     Thus far this discussion has examined message content
as a factor for consideration by managers faced with a
communication medium decision and how such a content-based
decision, if inappropriate, may lead to the medium becoming
a symbolic message.  However, context is a remaining factor
for consideration.  Contextual attributes include "distance,
expediency, time pressure, or simply the accessibility of a
particular communication technology" (Trevino et al., 1990,
p. 83).  The latter may include a travel budget or method of
transportation that allows use of what may be perceived to
be the most appropriate channel or medium, such as
face-to-face interaction.  For example, a study by
Steinfield and Fulk (1986) found that managers at
geographically diverse locations used electronic mail more
frequently than other media, despite message equivocality.
Steinfield (1992) points out "the choice to use an
inefficient medium for a task may be quite rational, in
light of the social context" (p. 357).

     In addition, the researchers found that, especially
with a new technology such as electronic mail, access to the
technology and to an audience of skilled and willing users
determined media choice.  For example, it was previously
mentioned that a reminder about a regular staff meeting
could be transmitted via electronic mail.  Since electronic
mail is capable of transmitting such a reminder to all
individuals concerned, with minimal effort by the manager,
it may be the medium chosen for this communication simply
because of its ability to reach many receivers at once.
After all, Daft and Lengel (1986) suggest that communication
of a suitable richness, such as electronic mail messages,
may reduce equivocality and uncertainty about something, in
this case, the regular meeting.

             Implications for Future Research

     Clearly there are several characteristics and
attributes of messages, communication situations, and
electronic mail as an organizational communication medium
that managers must consider before deciding how to transmit
their message.  They must acknowledge that problems will
arise when lean media are used for communicating information
that requires interpersonal involvement, such as
negotiations or conflict resolution.

     As a guideline, however, Trevino et al.  (1990) and
Steinfield (1985) suggest electronic mail as a suitable
medium for the following: (1) sending routine information,
(2) broadcasting a question, and (3) conducting transactions
that do not require high levels of interpersonal
involvement.  Electronic mail may be inappropriate for
transmitting confidential or personal information, resolving
disputes, or getting to know someone.

     Although there is some grey area concerning what type
of information managers will communicate to their
subordinates via electronic mail, there is evidence to
suggest that the introduction of electronic mail could
result in an increase in the amount of information exchanged
between managers and subordinates.

     Given the limited research available in this area,
questions remain: Does the universal availability of
electronic mail within an organization lead to an increase
in the amount of job-related information exchanged between
subordinates and supervisors (and vice versa), co-workers,
and/or to the information haves and the information
have-nots?  Also, are supervisors and subordinates, and
co-workers, using electronic mail to communicate only
certain types of information, such as that which is
unambiguous or impersonal?  Generally speaking, how has the
introduction of a universally accessible electronic mail
system affected the way employees in an organization
communicate?  These are the research questions I have
proposed to study to complete the requirements for the MPS
Degree in Communication at Cornell University.

     I proposed to study the effects of electronic mail to
this extent on a particular department at Cornell
University.  The department employs approximately 200
individuals as faculty, support, office, and library staff
located not only in different parts of one building, but in
different buildings entirely.  Some of these individuals,
between 60-80, had some type of electronic mail capability
while others did not.  Prior to 1992, not all regular
employees of this department were connected through a
universally accessible electronically-mediated mail system.
However, in early 1992, a new system linking all department
employees was installed, and training sessions were
conducted to ensure that the 122 employees new to this
system would be knowledgeable in how to use it.

     To answer my research questions, I began conducting a
descriptive panel study of how the 122 employees just
recently connected to the universally accessible electronic
mail system use it and how their intra-office communication
has been affected by this technology.  First, shortly after
they received training in how to use the system, I sent them
a direct mail questionnaire that examines how they were
communicating with co-workers, superiors, and subordinates
(if applicable) at that time.  I looked at how much
information they sent to and received from each source and
through what channels, how timely the information exchanged
was, how important certain information sources were, and
other areas related to organizational communication.

     Later in 1992/early 1993--after this sample of
department employees has had sufficient time to become
proficient in using this type of electronic mail system--I
will conduct a follow-up survey to determine what affect
this technology has had on organizational communication in
this department.  Specifically, I will look to see if there
has been a perceived increase in the amount of certain types
of information exchanged between superiors and subordinates,
and between co-workers themselves.  I will look at which
channel individuals use most frequently for exchanging
different types of information and for communicating with
different people.  Information obtained from this second
questionnaire will be compared to information obtained from
the first questionnaire to determine what changes, if any,
have occurred since the introduction of universally
accessible electronic mail to this department.

     The results of this research will be useful as a
situational description of how the introduction of
electronic mail into an organization can affect intra-office
communication between superiors and subordinates and between
co-workers themselves.  Implications of the research may
provide guidelines to users of electronic mail within an
organizational setting as to when electronic mail is an
appropriate channel, what types of information to exchange
via electronic mail, etc.  An understanding of potential
effects of introducing electronic mail can aid in the use of
this medium in the most effective manner possible within an
organization.

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