***** HALLORAN ********* EJC/REC Vol. 5, No. 2&3, 1995 *****

SOME PROBLEMS IN INTERNATIONAL COMPARATIVE RESEARCH


James D. Halloran
University of Leicester


        Abstract:  This article examines some of the
     problems and difficulties encountered in
     international comparative research programmes in
     mass communications.  To ensure comparability the
     units of analysis should be determined by the
     nature of the research, its aims and objectives
     and it is essential to be clear about what,
     precisely, is being compared.  The lack of
     consensus manifested in dichotomization into
     'conventional' and 'critical' approaches is one of
     the crucial issues arising from the nature of
     social science.  The other is suitability of
     exported models, theories, concepts and methods to
     Third World conditions.  The one-way flow has
     existed in research as well, but the
     indigenization of social science cannot be
     dismissed although it could lead to further
     weakening of consensus.  The experiences from
     former research, which are reviewed in this paper,
     should give us advice regarding what we should not
     do and where we should not go.


     The task I have been given is to examine some of the
problems and difficulties likely to be encountered in
designing and executing international, comparative research
programmes in mass communications.  I shall do this, inter
alia, by drawing on my research experience over thirty
years, during which time I have been responsible for, or
contributed to, some twelve international research
exercises, with participating countries ranging from three
to over twenty in any given project.

                      Lessons Learned?

     The immediate purpose of this examination on this
occasion is to see what, if anything, can be learned from
past research which might contribute to the current
discussions on the possibility of developing a new
international news flow study.  This might be conceived as a
follow-up to the earlier study, involving twenty-nine
countries, which was carried out in 1979, and reported in a
UNESCO publication in 1985.[1]

     There can be no doubt that we should have learned
something -- not least from the aforementioned study.  There
have been plenty of opportunities, and relevant publications
are available.[2]  Unfortunately, as the discussions on
future research possibilities have clearly illustrated, we
do not seem to learn from the past as we should do;
sometimes it appears that we are not even aware of the past,
failing to accept that social science without history is
blind and wasteful.  So often, at these international
research meetings, it is impossible to escape a deja vu
feeling, as so many attempts are made to re-invent the
wheel.  Social scientists rarely seem to apply social
science to social science.

     We may divide the problems and difficulties in
comparative research into two broad categories, namely
administrative and social scientific.  In this presentation
I intend to give more attention to the latter, although
readily accepting that the two types of problems should not
be seen in watertight compartments.  For, as I shall show,
financial, practical, logistical, political, cultural and
institutional considerations invariably play an important
part in circumscribing or facilitating the social scientific
effort.

     These days we are frequently told that social science
is now in a position to benefit tremendously from
technological developments and that, consequently, what was
extremely difficult or even impossible a decade ago in
international comparative research, is now much simpler and
more straightforward.  It would, of course, be foolish to
turn one's back on these developments, but we would do well
to remember that technology, and methods generally, are but
a means to an end.  The wheels may now be capable of
grinding more effectively, what what about the grist?  What
do we put into the mill?  What questions are we asking?
What are our aims and objectives?  How do we define our
problems?

     It is when we come to these sorts of questions, and
when we try to apply them to any possible future news flow
study, that I become concerned about what progress has
really been made in this field over the last quarter of a
century.  We might have more convenient and more economical
methods at our disposal, but are we adequately equipped
intellectually to effectively use these methods, or even
better equipped intellectually than we were some twenty or
thirty years ago?

     I shall return to these matters later, but at this
stage I think it would be worth while to look at the first
foreign news study and see how it was conceived and
developed, identifying some of the crucial factors in its
passage.

     The first foreign news study was carried out in 1979.
It stemmed from the development of a cooperative working
relationship between UNESCO and the International
Association for Mass Communication Research which dated from
the UNESCO Montreal Conference in 1969.  This conference has
been recognized, by friend and foe alike, as constituting "a
watershed in international communication research",
particularly as far as UNESCO's involvement was concerned.
At the risk of oversimplification, it marked a shift from a
conventional, mainly service, administrative and western
dominated approach, to a more critical approach with a wider
sociological orientation.

     The record suggests that UNESCO would not have been
involved in such a potentially critical study as the news
study prior to the Montreal Conference and unfortunately,
more recent records clearly indicate that its involvement in
this sort of work was short-lived.  I have dealt elsewhere
[3] with the wider political ramifications of these
developments; suffice it to state here that UNESCO's
paymasters were not going to fund research that might
challenge the status quo and their own international vested
interests.

     In a sense, then, the first news study was a response
to a particular form of social-political concern, and it
reflected a relatively new and by no means universally
popular, social scientific approach.  This need not be a bad
thing in itself, but when the concern is not uniformly
experienced or interpreted, and the approach not adequately
understood by all the participating countries it often can,
and in this case did, lead to a series of "political
compromises" at several levels.

     These compromises -- well nigh inevitable in the
international arena at that time -- do not make for good
social science and, in the circumstances, it was not far
short of miraculous that the work was successfully completed
and, above all, that a useful and interesting report finally
emerged.

     Of course, to write about "good social science" raises
more questions than it solves, for not all the problems
encountered in the news study stemmed from the external
conditions just outlined - the internal nature of social
science/mass communication research was at least equally to
blame.

     This is not the place for a detailed discussion on the
nature of social science but, in reviewing old studies and
attempting to use these to inform new ones, there are
certain fundamental features that must be borne in mind.

     Nearly 30 years ago our host in Tampere, Kaarle
Nordenstreng, characterized mainstream, conventional
communication research in the USA as being concerned with
"doing rather than with thinking".  Around the same time an
American sociologist, Charles Wright, commented on the
theoretical paucity of so much of mass communication
research which was marked by crude conceptualization, a lack
of hypotheses and the predominance of means over ends.  In a
similar vein, I concluded a review of the field by asking
why it was that so many research reports seemed to consist
of allegedly definitive statistical statements about the
irrelevant, the trivial, the inconsequential and sometimes
the plainly invalid?

     As indicated earlier, this type of conventional
approach did not go unchallenged, particularly after the
Montreal Conference, but it still underpinned the vast bulk
of research that was carried out at the time, and no doubt
still does to this day.  It certainly was an important part
of the ethos within which the news study was conceived and
executed.  Moreover, just to make matters more complicated,
the critical approach attracted its extremists, whose
preference for an ideological package tour frequently led
them to regard hard evidence as irrelevant.  Planning an
international comparative study involving over twenty
countries was no simple matter twenty years ago, and recent
exchanges, at this meeting and elsewhere, indicate that many
of the problems we experienced then are still with us.

     I do not wish to imply that there has been no progress
in mass communication research over the last quarter of a
century, although it should be obvious now that what I might
regard as "progress" is not so regarded by all who work in
this field, including some who might wish to take part in
any future study.  One needs to bear this in mind in what
follows.

                        Methodology

     At the risk of oversimplifying the issue it may be said
that, over the last thirty years or so, there has been a
greater willingness to accept that, in international
comparative research, there was no need for all the
participating countries to rigidly and mechanically apply
the same agreed instruments and that a more flexible,
sociological orientation which recognized national,
cultural, social and linguistic differences, and the
implications of these differences for design and data
collection, had its advantages.  Put briefly, it was
recognized that, except in the most simple of categories,
different questions, at least differently presented
questions (reflecting differences in culture, language,
etc.)  -- not the same questions -- would be necessary to
evoke the same _type_ of information in the different
circumstances.  This would hold even when the research was
dealing with what might be termed the _"common
denominator"_, i.e. the area of enquiry included in the work
of all the participating countries.  Moreover, in addition
to this, it came to be accepted that, in order to do justice
to the complexity of the subject matter, it would be
necessary for each country to include special segments in
their enquiries which, amongst other things, would
facilitate a deeper understanding of national differences.

     One final general point in this connection was that the
hard/soft, quantitative/qualitative, hierarchical dichotomy
with regard to data was rejected.  Wherever possible
attempts were made to blend the two.  For example,
quantitative data could be enriched and refined by data
gained from more ethnographic and anthropological approaches
-- both being equally valid and useful.[4]

     Let us now look in a little more detail at the
significance of this shift in the mode of enquiry.

     Some of the researchers have recognized for some time
that international comparative research was bedevilled not
only by understandable and inevitable problems (practical,
logistical, policies, research interests, resources, etc.)
but also by misconceptions and misunderstandings about the
very nature and potential of this type of research.  Above
all, it was felt that there was a need to ask what was
really meant by comparative studies, and what should be the
essence of the units of comparative analysis?

     The units of analysis selected in any given project are
essentially determined by the nature of the research and its
aims and objectives.  Unfortunately, this is not always
clearly understood.  For example, in one project in which I
was involved, which focussed on producers and their
knowledge of their audience, the point was raised, as a
criticism, that the children in the different countries were
not all of the same age.  Age may be central in some
studies, but the important factor in this particular study
was that the main unit of comparison was not young people of
the same age in different countries, but the relationship
between the broadcasting institutions and broadcasters on
the one hand, and their target audience (which might be
13/14 years in one country, 12/13 years in another) on the
other.  The match, or lack of it, between the two and the
factors that influenced both provision and reaction to
provision, were what mattered, and what had to be analysed.

     With regard to another project it had to be emphasized
that comparability should not be confined to simple, and
somewhat obvious comparisons of age, sex, etc.  The aims of
the research in question meant that it was not adequate to
compare the media behaviour of, say, farmworkers in Hungary
and fishermen in Canada.  It was necessary, in this
particular case, that the comparisons should centre on the
way in which the different media systems were organized and
the differences in what was provided, how the provision was
used by different groups within the society, (e.g., farmers
and fishermen), and what were the consequences of that use
in the different countries in relation to the selected
objectives of the research.  It is absolutely essential to
be clear about what, precisely, is being compared.  Yet so
often this is not clarified, and the situation is further
complicated and obscured by the introduction of conventional
variables (sex, class, age, educational background, etc.,
etc.!), which could be totally irrelevant as far as the main
aims of the specific project are concerned.

     There used to be many researchers -- in fact there are
still some - who automatically accept that even in the type
of research discussed here [5] the carbon-copy, blue-print
application in different societies of pre-tested
questionnaire items, in a highly structured research
instrument, is capable of providing data suitable for
genuine comparative analysis.  The position held here is
that unless the "analysis" is confined to very simple
categories this approach is meaningless, and is likely to
produce invalid and misleading information.

     It is important to stress that language does not
develop in a vacuum, and that words, phrases, sentences,
questions, etc., have meanings only within given cultural,
or even sub-cultural contexts.  Consequently, it would be a
mistake to attempt to produce uniformity in the verbal
stimulus (questionnaire items) in a universe which is likely
to be characterized by linguistic-cultural pluralism.  The
task is to make sure, in the various societies/cultures in
which the research is being carried out, that the verbal
stimulus or question used in the interview or survey, or the
coding category in the analysis of news, is the one most
capable of eliciting the precise type of information that
the objectives require.  Real comparability is obtained at
this level of analysis, not at question item level.  In
different cultures -- because they are different --
different questions have to be asked (in different ways) to
obtain the same sort of information.  Comparing the answers
to allegedly identical questions asked in different
countries is not necessarily comparing like with like, as
some would have us believe.

     Taking another specific example from some research on
Foreign Images it was discovered that personal contacts with
foreigners meant totally different things in different
countries.  In Canada, England and Germany the dominant form
of contact could be living in the same town or neighbourhood
as immigrants, but in Hungary it was more likely to consist
of meeting foreign tourists.  Whilst in some countries
immigrants were seen by the children as coming from
economically less developed cultures, in Hungary the
tourists (quite different from immigrants or workers, but
the main source of foreign contact nonetheless), were more
likely to be seen as representatives of an economically more
developed society.  Generally, this meant that high
contact/low contact had totally different implications in
different countries in terms of both the nature of the
contact and its wider effects.  This demonstrates that it is
not valid to attempt an item by item, precise comparison
between the various participating countries.  The unit of
comparison should be the nature, the essence of the
information sought and evoked under certain agreed
categories.

     In most comparative research attempts are usually made
to achieve the widest possible band of agreement so that
comparisons can be attempted on a wide scale.  Even so, it
has to be recognized that it would be quite artificial and
misleading to ignore real national differences at
structural, institutional and cultural levels.
Consequently, it is often appropriate -- in fact necessary
-- for the researchers to pursue some lines of enquiry which
would be relevant only - in their own country.

     However, sometimes there is a price to pay for this
flexibility.  In certain circumstances the flexibility could
result in insufficient attention being given to the main
comparative elements -- the common denominators -- and might
possibly lead to something approaching anarchy in
presentation.  In the design and planning it is necessary to
strike the right balance between the common and the
particular.

     In any kind of comparative research it is not very
useful simply to provide an item by item inventory of
similarities and differences from the various participating
countries.  The studies from the various countries need to
be integrated or compared in relation to some model or set
of guidelines.  These guidelines make it possible to impose
some sort of meaning and coherence on what would otherwise
be a relatively meaningless collection of snippets and
fragments.  In other words, to be useful data have to be
classified, analysed and interpreted in relation to a chosen
set of principles, for data never speak for themselves.
But, of course, there is not just one model, or one set of
principles -- several may be available, so choices have to
be made, and there are often fundamental disagreements
amongst the participants.  In the circumstances this lack of
consensus is almost inevitable.  What matters is to be clear
as to what guidelines or models have been used, and to
articulate this and specify the reasons for the choice.  In
studies such as these there is no room for spurious
objectivity.

     It is important to note that the above comments about
the integration of data in accordance with selected
guidelines or frameworks is more of a statement of an ideal
than an accurate description of what normally happens in
comparative research.

     It is perhaps convenient that discussion of these
methodological problems now enables us to return to some of
the basic issues in relation to social scientific research
which I mentioned earlier.  Moreover, these problems and
issues create certain difficulties with regard to the
dissemination and acceptance of research results and, as
will be seen, they are also relevant to any consideration as
to the possibility of carrying out research in Third World
countries.

                        Basic Issues

     Let us then focus on two main aspects of what I regard
as a very crucial issue - crucial to the nature and scope of
social science and, in particular, to the application of
social science, including mass communication research, to
Third World situations.  The first has to do with the lack
of consensus in mass communication research, and in social
science generally.  The crude dichotemization into
"conventional" and "critical" approaches, which I have used
from time to time, is an example of this.  These gross
categories conceal as much as they reveal, for they are by
no means homogeneous.  Although there are differences within
as well as between, they reflect the main basic divisions
between the Aristotelian hermeneutic approaches and the
Galilean positivistic approaches which have characterized so
much of conventional communication research.  At this stage
our main concern, without taking sides or without dismissing
any of the approaches as illegitimate, is with the
implications of this lack of consensus of these "warring
schools", and the "ferment in the field" in an allegedly
scientific exercise.

     The situation becomes even more problematic when we add
geographical and stage-of-development components to those
contributing to the lack of consensus, and to the
discontinuities already mentioned.  There is ample evidence
in mass communication research, as we saw earlier, to
suggest that cultural, regional and national differences
profoundly influence the research effort at all stages and
levels.

     But we should not expect to be free from such
influences.  It is not surprising if, in a situation of
conflicting ideologies and other geo-cultural differences,
we find disagreements across a wide range of relevant
factors, including aims, purposes, needs, theories,
conceptualization, design and methods.  The different
schools actually look for evidence (selectively defined, of
course) in different places, and employ different criteria
in assessing its validity.  In such circumstances dialogue,
meaningful exchanges and constructive debate are extremely
difficult, if not impossible.  The necessary common
referrents and agreed basic assumptions are lacking, as is
the overlap in the respective fields of discourse which is
the sine qua non of effective communication.

     Yet we talk of "social _science_", emphasize the
importance of _scientific method_, and in many cases act as
though, once we have progressed beyond the understandable
confusion and uncertainty associated with the embryonic
stage of development, we shall be able to rid ourselves of
the conflicts, contradictions and discontinuities and reach
the holy grail of consensus, the hallmark of "real science".

     But, realistically, what are the chances of this?  Of
course there are differences within the natural and physical
sciences, but on the whole they are not of the kind which
make constructive dialogue well nigh impossible.  If
consensus is a mark of scientific maturity, as some would
claim, then the social sciences are not very mature.  What
is more, it is possible that, by their very nature, the
social sciences will never be able to grow up or mature _in
this way_.  This could mean that new criteria of development
and maturity are required -- perhaps "healthy, critical
dissensus"!  The continued use of natural science as a model
for social science may not be appropriate.

     In suggesting this I am by no means wishing to signal
the end of mass communication research or international
comparative studies.  Systematic, disciplined, fruitful
studies can still be carried out within an eclectic
framework, and assessed accordingly.  This is not an escape
from rigour, but an acceptance of an approach (albeit as yet
by no means a fully developed approach) which is capable of
doing justice to the complex set of relationships,
structures and processes which characterize our field of
study.

                 Third World Indigenization

     The next point, very closely related to the previous
one, centres on mass communication and media research in
Third World countries.  What are we exporting from the
so-called developed world in research?  How suitable are
these exported models, theories, concepts, methods, etc.,
for the conditions it is intended that they should address?
Are political, commercial, cultural and media imperialisms
being followed by research imperialism?  What forms of
indigenization are required, and to what degree should they
be applied?  These are just a few of the questions which
should be asked, both directly in relation to mass
communication research, and more generally and more widely
with regard to the question of universality and relativity
in the social sciences.  Obviously this last mentioned
matter, important though it is, can only receive passing
mention here, but it is relevant to our general problem.

     Wherever we look in international communication
research -- exports and imports of textbooks, articles and
journals; citations, references and footnotes; employment of
experts (even in international agencies), and the funding,
planning and execution of research, we are essentially
looking at a _dependency situation_.  This is a situation
which is characterized by a one-way flow of values, ideas,
models, methods and resources from north to south.  It may
even be seen more specifically as a flow from the
Anglo-Saxon language fraternity to the rest of the world,
and perhaps even more specifically still, within the
aforementioned parameters, as an instance of a one-way
traffic system which enabled USA-dominated social science of
the conventional nature to penetrate cultures in many parts
of the world which were quite different from the culture in
the USA.  As the USA emerged as a super-power in social
science, like it did in other spheres, even what little
input there was from other sources tended to be excluded.

     To me (although there would be considerable opposition
to this stance), there is no doubt that much of what was
exported from the USA, post-World War II, and the
implications of these exports, were on the whole
detrimental.  The exports certainly did not serve to
increase our understanding of the Third World and its
communication requirements, nor did they facilitate
development in any way.

     Daniel Lerner's extremely influential work on _The
Passing of Traditional Society_ was a prime example of this,
irrespective of whether or not it is regarded as an artefact
of the cold-war politics of that time.  However, it has been
argued that this is not simply a matter of unsuitable
exports -- it is a much more fundamental matter of bad
social science per se.  The point being made here is that
the principles and models underpinning Lerner's research
(and much more research by others in a similar vein) would
not have been adequate in any situation, including the
situation in the USA.  To export such models simply
compounded the felony, so to speak.  It was not solely a
Third World problem -- it was a social science problem.

     This takes us back to the questions already raised
about the very nature, potential and universal applicability
of social science, no matter how free it may be from the
aforementioned conditioning.  We have plenty of basic
problems at the national or regional levels, as we have
already noted, but we must now ask how can we possibly deal
with the increasing diversification within our general field
of communication research which inevitably stems from the
extension of our investigations to cultures outside the
cultures within which our ideas and tools were conceived,
developed and articulated?

     In general terms, the answer frequently given to this
question is "Indigenization at Several Levels".
Unfortunately, this proposed solution is often put forward
without any apparent recognition that, in certain
circumstances, it could lead to increasing dissonance and
discontinuity, and a further weakening of the consensus
which many still regard as the hallmark of social scientific
maturity.

     The global cry for the indigenization of social
scientific and mass communication research cannot be
dismissed, but it needs to be treated with reserve in
certain areas, particularly in relation to some of the ways
in which it has already been applied.  I would have thought
that we could readily accept the need for emerging nations
and regions to determine their own research policies,
priorities and strategies, rather than having them
externally imposed, as was the case so often in the past.
The need for home-based institutions, housing native staff
capable of carrying out the necessary research in their own
countries, also appears to be generally acceptable -- at
least on the surface.  I insert this "surface" qualification
simply because, for many years now, the case has been
fiercely argued that the situation would improve to the
benefit of Third World countries if the nationals of those
countries were given the opportunity, and the resources, to
enable them to carry out the research.  But this is far too
simplistic a view, as our experience makes clear, for many
of these nationals have been trained as conventional
researchers, mostly in universities in the USA, and seem
unable to free themselves from the ideological shackles of
their educational and professional mentors.  In this way
they tend to exacerbate the situation and perpetuate the
error by giving the "alien import" a national seal of
approval.

     The essence of this particular problem of
indigenization, particularly as far as international
comparative research is concerned, is at the levels of
language, conceptualization, models, paradigms, theories and
methods, which means that it is central to the more
fundamental problems of social science with regard to
universalism and relativism and as to whether we should be
pursuing consensus (in part or in whole), or accepting the
inevitability of dissensus.

                     Perspectives Ahead

     As someone who has been actively involved in the
design, planning, organization, execution and reporting of
international comparative research for over a quarter of a
century, my approach to the problem is not from the
armchair, but from the field.  There is no panacea and I
have no easy answers; to me the problem is still there.  In
fact, the questionings and explorations are only just
beginning, and there will be much more to question and
explore in the years ahead.

     However, we know enough from recent experiences in
research programmes to put us on our guard against those who
come with new, all embracing solutions.  Having rightly
rejected the absolutism of positivism and all its
universalistic implications for international research, we
must be careful not to jump out of the frying pan into the
fire.  In rejecting a position, there is no logical
necessity to wholeheartedly adopt its mirror opposite.  Yet
there was some evidence at the Tampere meeting that this is
precisely what some were doing.  The danger in this
unthinking, knee-jerk reaction is that knowledge is reduced
to mere perspectivalism -- a riot of subjective visions --
and a form of anarchy prevails.  There are many examples
today, inside and outside our particular field within social
science, which demonstrate the tyranny of the absolutism of
non-absolutism, where anything goes and where plural
subjectivism frequently masquerades as knowledge.  Useful
comparative research cannot thrive in such conditions which,
incidentally, are also conducive to political paralysis.

     So, in our explorations, we have to navigate between
Scylla and Charybdis in the hope of eventually reaching a
safe port.  An accompanying difficulty is that, as yet, we
haven't quite decided on our destination -- again, the
nature of social science!  Choices will have to be made and,
in the end, we can't dodge the issues of validity or values.

     In comparative international studies we need to start
with an acceptance of differences at all levels.  But it is
quite legitimate -- in fact necessary -- to proceed from
this base and attempt to identify, establish, articulate and
combine what, if anything, is common.  As Paul Hirst argues,
different ways of life may be related by ties of symetric
reciprocity and we may eventually find common denomitators
-- universals which reflect the nature and needs of every
culture.  At least this possibility should not be ruled out,
but it has to be established in our research, not simply
assumed or taken for granted.

     This, then, is what we see when we attempt to look into
the future with the benefit of the experience of the past
and when, in our particular case, we contemplate a second
news study.  The situation we are discussing is a complex
and difficult one, but granted the embryonic nature of
developments in our field, this should not surprise us, so
there is no need for pessimism.  It is better to be
realistic and aware of the problems, for only in this way
can we address them.  In some ways it is the false optimism
and "certainty" of the positivists that have muddied the
waters, and made things more difficult than they might have
been.

     I think that we may say that the picture that emerges
from our overview is one of general guidance rather than
clear, specific lines to follow.  However, I would suggest
that there is still a very clear indication that, even if we
don't know exactly what to do or where to go, the picture is
unambiguous as to what we should _not_ do, and where we
should _not_ go.  I hope that this has been made clear.

     There is one further and final problem which, so far, I
have only touched on in passing.  This has to do with the
dissemination of our research results, and the influence of
our work on policy and the public debate.  The conclusion of
the research project is the beginning, not the end of the
educative task.  Another aspect of this problem was
mentioned by one of the contributors when he asked, Why do
we do this work?  Why do we want to carry out a second news
study?

     There can be little doubt that just as we found
differences in the approaches to social science and mass
communication research, we shall also find differences in
the answers to these questions.  Some researchers, perhaps
most of those interested in the news study, although by no
means a uniform group, are probably motivated in some way or
other by social concerns and would hope, to put it at its
simplest, that their work might inform communication policy
and lead to the more effective meeting of communication
needs -- however these are defined.  On the whole they would
not necessarily regard theoretical sophistication,
methodological rigour and normative concerns as being
incompatible.

     But there are others who would object to the inclusion
of the normative element (referring to it as
"politicization"), although in consciously espousing
scientific neutrality they would probably not be aware of
the conservative, status quo maintenance function of their
work.  It is worth noting that the safe, uncritical results
from this school are more likely to be fed into policy than
those findings which stem from the more challenging stance
of those whose social concern leads them to ask questions
about the nature and function of existing systems.

     Needless to say the critical school, if in fact there
is such a group, is certainly not homogeneous -- the part
played by "the ideologists" has already been mentioned.
Additionally, there is no shortage of those who might think
of themselves as belonging who, because of their lack of
discipline, obscurantist writings and alienated stances,
fail to mount any effective challenge.

     Quite simply, no one involved in policy-making is
influenced by these people, although they seem to increase
in numbers with the burgeoning of communication studies.
Their work, such as it is, is not regarded as serious
outside their own incestuous group.  They fall back on
themselves manifesting, as Robert Hughes put it, that
"powerlessness corrupts, and absolute powerlessness corrupts
absolutely".  In many cases what might at one time have been
a concern with wider social issues gets channeled into an
overriding concern with self, with one's own existence and
institutional preservation -- "academic life, and
communication studies for the sake of academic life and
communication studies".

     I mention these points in concluding this presentation
on problems in research simply because, if we wish our work
to be taken seriously, to have impact and inform policy --
and I hope we do -- then we need to be aware and face up to
not only the difficulties inherent in social science, but
also those associated with the wider (and wider) "academic"
community inhabited by those who claim to address
communication issues along the lines just mentioned.  As we
have seen, the external opposition to critical research is
formidable enough as it is -- it doesn't require reinforcing
from this source.


                           Notes

     1. Foreign News in the Media:  International Reporting
in 29 Countries, (Ed.)  Annabelle Sreberny-Mohammadi, Kaarle
Nordenstreng, Robert Stevenson, and Frank Ugboajah, UNESCO,
Paris, 1985.

     2. See, for example, James D. Halloran,  A Quarter of a
Century of Prix Jeunesse Research, Stiftung Prix Jeunesse,
Munich, 1990, pp. 117-126.

     3. James D. Halloran, The Context of Mass Communication
Research, Paris:  UNESCO, 1980.

     4. Again it needs to be emphasized that this was not a
"majority movement".

     5. These examples are taken from audience studies, and
the lessons might not apply _to the same degree_ in the
content analysis of news bulletins.  Nevertheless, the same
general principles are relevant across the board.
------------------------------------------------------------
Author Information:  James D. Halloran
                     Centre for Mass Communication Research
                     University of Leicester
                     104 Regent Road, Leicester, LE1 7LT
                     England
                     Telephone: +44-116-252-3863/4
                     Fax: +44-116-252-3874
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                      Copyright 1995
   Communication Institute for Online Scholarship, Inc.

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