Message
Messages can be divided into two
basic parts: organization and content. This section will
discuss message content.
Message Content
Three important areas of investigation into the content of
persuasive messages are message arguments (quality and
quantity of arguments), evidence, and fear appeals. I will
discuss each area separately in this section.
Research demonstrates that argument strength is directly
related to attitude change (Andrews &
Shimp, 1990;
Cacioppo, Petty, & Morris,
1983;
Petty,
Cacioppo, &
Goldman, 1981). This means the stronger the argument, the more
the attitude change it creates -- and the weaker the argument,
the less attitude change it creates. It makes sense that
arguments that are stronger, or higher quality, would be more
persuasive than arguments that are weaker, or poorer quality.
Messages with more arguments are more persuasive than those
with fewer arguments (Calder, Insko, & Yandell,
1974;
Chaiken, 1980; Cook,
1969; Petty & Cacioppo,
1984). The
more arguments in a message, the more likely it will seem to
be true (or the more likely that a message will include at
least one argument that appeals to the audience). These
factors probably influence persuasion by aiding yielding -- we
are more likely to accept arguments that are stronger.
Some messages try to persuade people through the use of fear
appeals: “You shouldn’t smoke because cigarettes can cause
lung cancer and heart disease and kill you.”
Research on fear appeals reveals a direct relationship
between fear appeals and persuasion: the greater the fear
appeal, the more persuasion will occur (Mongeau,
1998).
However, there are four key elements to an effective fear
appeal (Roger ,
1983). First, the threat in the fear appeal must be serious.
Smokers must believe that cigarettes really can damage their
health. Second, the audience must believe that the problem
identified in the fear appeal could strike them. Some smokers
know that not every smoker dies from lung cancer or heart
disease (my grandfather smoked until he was 94, and then he
died from a car wreck, not from cigarettes). They may believe
that smoking might hurt some people, but not them. Third, the
messages should offer a means of coping with the threat (a
solution) that appears effective to the audience. If a smoker
doesn’t believe he or she can really quit (believing that
the nicotine in cigarettes is too addictive), the fear appeal
won’t cause persuasion. Finally, the audience must believe
that they have the power or ability to implement the solution.
If there is an effective treatment for smoking but it is too
expensive, the fear appeal will fail. Fear appeals may improve
attention (I want to listen so I can avoid this threat) and
yielding (I will agree so I can avoid or lessen the threat).
Evidence comes in many varieties: examples, statistics, and
expert testimony are common forms (sometimes persuaders use
physical evidence, as we see in televised trials). Expert
testimony refers to statements of fact that the speaker
attributes to someone else (an expert). For example, if a
speaker quotes a professor of criminology in a speech on
crime, that is an instance of expert testimony. Research has
demonstrated that evidence has a consistent and strong effect
on persuasion (Reinard,
1998). Research suggests that evidence
is also effective at creating resistance to persuasion -- in
protecting those who agree with you from attempts by others to
change their attitudes (McCroskey,
1970). A few studies have
compared examples with statistics. Generally, evidence from
examples is more persuasive (Taylor & Thompson,
1982).
Examples also create resistance to counter persuasion (Bridges
& Reinard (1974). Evidence might increase attention and
comprehension (and examples seem particularly useful in
increasing understanding). Evidence also probably has
important effects on yielding.
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